Chapter 4: p139

Focus Questions

What is classical conditioning and how did Pavlov study it?

Ivan Pavlov is the originator of what is now called classical conditioning, a form of learning base primarily on stimuli that causes reflexes, such as salvation in response to food.

What basic procedures are involved in classical conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally produces the reflex response is the unconditional stimulus (UCS), which is repeatedly paired with an initially neutral stimulus until the latter becomes the conditional stimulus (CS). What is learned in classical conditioning is a CS-UCS association; the original reflex response is the unconditional response (UCR), and the response produced by the CS is the conditional response (CR).

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an animal’s natural response to one object or sensory stimulus transfers to another stimulus. This illustration shows how a dog can learn to salivate to the sound of a tuning fork, an experiment first carried out in the early 1900s by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. For conditioning to occur, the pairing of the food with the tuning fork (step 3 in the illustration) must be repeated many times, so that the dog eventually learns to associate the two items.

Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning Phenomena and Applications: p142

Focus Questions

Why is timing of the CS and UCS important in classical conditioning?

Delayed conditioning is the most effective form of classical conditioning. Less effective are simultaneous conditioning and trace conditioning. After conditioning, extinction of the CR occurs when the UCS is discontinued. Allowing time to pass and returning the subject to the apparatus is typically accompanied by spontaneous recovery.

Why is it important for the CS to “predict” the UCS?

The crucial factor in classical conditioning is the consistency with which the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS.

How do generalization and discrimination work?

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to the original CS also produces CR.

Stimulus discrimination, its complement, occurs when dissimilar stimuli produce lesser CR or none at all.

How does biological predisposition affect classical conditioning?

Biological predispositions are often apparent in classical conditioning. Because of pre-wiring, some CS-UCS associations can be established much more easily that others and some not at all.

Taste aversion experiments provide an example of how biological predispositions affect conditioning. The learning of taste aversion is easy for animals that naturally associate taste with food but difficult to impossible for animals that use other cues, such as visual ones for food.

Experiments:

In the modern view, conditioning can be best explained by the development of expectancies—that is, what animals and humans learn is the expectation that a particular conditioned stimulus (CS) will be followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Classical conditioning by past events may account for many of the fears and preferences displayed by human adults—and also for physical symptoms such as unexplained headaches or nausea and the intense desire to return to drug use that is some times displayed by former drug addicts.

• In Watson and Rayner’s “Little Albert” experiment, the loud sound was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the rat was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and a fear response was the (UCR), and the (CR).
  
• In the experiment on conditioned illness in rats, the insulin was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the light and syringe were the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the coma was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).
  
• In the experiment on conditioning the immune system in rats, the drug was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the novel taste was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and production of the antibodies was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).
  
• In the experiments on conditioning sexual behavior in rats, normal female odors were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the lemon scent was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and sexual arousal was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).
  

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

September 26, 1849 – February 27, 1936

Classical Conditioning was advanced by a serendipitous finding of Ivan Pavlov. The word serendipitous means accidental discovery. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was studying digestion when he stumbled on the phenomenon that made him one of the most famous psychologists in the twentieth century. Subsequently, Classical Conditioning is sometimes called Pavlovian Conditioning because it was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.

As a physiologist, it was Pavlov’s ambition to discover the neural mechanisms that control glandular secretions during digestion. Pavlov used dogs as his subjects as he exposed the dogs’ salivary glands and measured the amount of salivation.

Pavlov’s Apparatus: Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position
and gather uncontaminated saliva samples. They do not cause the dog discomfort. (Carlson, 1997)

Pavlov’s strategy was to study salivary processes in individual dogs over many test sessions. During each session, he placed dry food powder inside the dog’s mouth and then collected the saliva. All went well until the dogs became experienced subjects. After several testing sessions, the dogs began salivating before being fed, usually as soon as they saw the laboratory assistant enter the room with the food powder. What Pavlov discovered was a form of learning in which one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another. In this case, the appearance of the laboratory assistant predicted the appearance of food (Carlson, 1997).

Pavlov designed experiments to discover exactly why the dogs were salivating before being given the opportunity to eat. He suspected that salivation might be triggered by stimuli that were initially unrelated to eating. Somehow, these previously neutral stimuli came to control what is normally a natural reflexive behavior. After all, dogs do not naturally salivate when they see laboratory assistants (Carlson, 1997).

In order to understand what was controlling this unexpected behavior of salivating when the laboratory assistants were seen, Pavlov placed an inexperienced (naive) dog in a harness and occasionally gave it small amounts of food powder. Just prior to placing the food powder in the dog’s mouth, Pavlov sounded a bell, a buzzer, or some other auditory stimulus (Carlson, 1997).

At first, the dog showed only a startle response to the sound. The dog salivated only when the food powder was placed in the dog’s mouth. After only a dozen or so pairings of the bell and food powder, the dog began to salivate when the bell rang (Carlson, 1997).

Placing the food powder in the dog’s mouth was no longer necessary to elicit salivation. When learning took place, the sound by itself was sufficient to elicit salivation. Pavlov, therefore, showed that a neutral stimulus (bell sound) can elicit a response similar to the original reflex (salivation) when the previously neutral stimulus (bell sound) predicts the occurrence of a significant stimulus (food powder) (Carlson, 1997).

Consequently, learning occurred in that there was a CHANGE in behavior due to an association between two stimuli – the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus. This association between the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus is why Classical Conditioning is also called Associative Learning.

Terms Specific to Classical Conditioning

1. Elicit
2. Unconditioned Stimulus
3. Unconditioned Response
4. Conditioned Stimulus
5. Conditioned Response

Elicit: Elicit means to produce, cause or evoke a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The prefix “un” means not; conditioned means learned; stimulus means person, place, object, event, or physical energy; therefore, an unconditioned stimulus is any stimulus which does not require learning in order to elicit or cause a behavior.

Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unconditioned response is the response that is automatically elicited, produced, caused or evoked by the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). No learning takes place when the UCS is presented. The UCR may be a reflex produced by the UCS. Reflexes are simple, unlearned, involuntary responses.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A conditioned stimulus is initially neutral. Initially, the conditioned stimulus is not capable of eliciting, producing, causing, or evoking a conditioned response. After learning takes place, the CS elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Conditioned Response (CR): A conditioned response (CR) is a response that is learned. The learning takes place because the UCS and the CS are associated together. Later, the CS comes to take on a similar capability of eliciting the CR which is similar to the UCR.

Explaining the words “conditioned” and conditional” In the Russian language, Pavlov used the adjective “uslovna” which is more properly translated “conditional” and not “conditioned”. However, with the English translation, the use of the terms conditioned stimulus and conditioned response has become accepted.

Chapter 1 Review:

Introduction to Psychology:

Although the definition of psychology has changed over the years, first focusing on the study of the mental processes, then on the study of observable behavior, today Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes, behaviors and other unseen processes that go on inside the organism.

History of Psychology:

It is important that the history of psychology be reviewed, beginning with the founding of psychology as an independent “scientific discipline” (i.e. formal academic discipline).

1879: Wilhelm Wundt: the first Experimental Laboratory in Psychology (at Leipzig University in Leipzig Germany) and the first school of thought in psychology, Structuralism,

Structuralism: (1^st school of thought is psychology) an approach that emphasized breaking down consciousness and mental activity into structural components and analyzing them individually.

1889: William James established the first American school of psychology at Harvard University, call Functionalism.

Functionalism: an approach that stressed how modern human thought might result from progressive adaptations our ancestors experienced.

Then psychology was influenced by the foundation of Psychoanalysis, by Sigmund Freud
(Psychoanalytic theory 1^st force in Psychology).

Psychoanalysis: Analysis of the unconscious motives and conflicts of patients in an attempt to develop insight into their present mental or behavioral problems.

Then Max Wertheimer established the Gestalt school of thought in psychology.

Gestalt psychology: an approach that examines patterns of thought and behavior, emphasizing the situation or context in which they occur.

Followed by the “shift in focus” in American psychology to the study of observable behavior, resulting from John Watson’s establishment of Behaviorism, and subsequently drawing on the later work of B.F. Skinner.

Strict Behaviorism: (2^nd force of Psychology) an approach that considers only overt behavior to be appropriate subject matter for psychology.

Still later, Psychology was influenced by two of the most contemporary schools of thought in psychology with the emergence of the Humanistic (3^rd force of Psychology) school resulting from the work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rodgers
(with its focus on the uniqueness of human beings, and the development of human potentialities);

Humanistic Psychology: (3^rd force of Psychology) an approach that emphasizes human values, goals, and desire for growth, fulfillment, and peace and happiness.

And the rise of the Cognitive school resulting from the original pioneering work of Jean Piaget

Cognitive approach: a contemporary trend, based largely on the information-processing model that emphasizes mental and intellectual processes such as learning, memory, and thought.

The Three Types of Research Methods:

The three types of research methods that make psychology a “scientific discipline” are:

1. Descriptive Methods:

   The descriptive methods include:

• Naturalistic and Controlled observation:
  

• The survey methods (3 types)
  

  Surveys are widely used, and typically require selection of a sample of participants (subjects) from a larger population of potential subjects. It is important to know how a sample can be selected so that it is representative (i.e. random selection) how questionnaires are use, and why structured interviews often have an advantage because of elaboration of details that is made possible when good “rapport” is established between the subject and the interviewer.

• Clinical/Case study method (the “hybrid” method)
  

1. Experimental method:

   The experimental method is the research method that meets the demand and conditions required to establish whether a cause and effect relationship exists between two (or more) variables.

• All experiments begin with a hypothesis to be tested, about the casual relationship between an independent variable and a dependant variable.
• If an experiment confirms the hypothesis, the next question that must be addressed is whether the same results apply in other situations.
• There are several problems that can occur in an experiment that can influence or bias the results.
  • These problems can include a bias because of how the experimental and control groups are chosen; experimental bias (i.e. the experimenters expectation influences the participant responses, or the study outcomes);
  • the placebo effect (i.e. the subjects behave according to their own expectations, or predispositions about the outcomes of the experiment).

It should also be noted that sometimes the “controls” used in an experiment make the setting or situation seem highly contrived and unnatural (adversely impacting the outcomes).

1. Correlational method:

   The correlational method is a research method used to analyze research data to determine the relationship between variables (other than cause and effect relationships).

• When a correlation is high, the presence (or absence) of one variable predicts the presence or absence of another variable.
• Psychological researchers have often used a wide variety of test to collect research data, and many tests are used in correlational research.

Research findings are verified by “replication” of psychological studies. If research findings (results) are valid, the replication of the study will yield the same, or very similar, results.

“Meta-analysis” is a method of combining and integrating the results of a number of research studies.

Applied Research:
Refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies. Psychologists working in human factors or industrial/organizational fields often do this type of research.

Basic Research: Refers to study and research on pure science that is meant to increase our scientific knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior but does not seek to solve or treat these problems.

Behavioral perspective: maintained that psychology should confine itself to the study of observable behavior, rather than explore a person’s unconscious feelings. The behavioral perspective explains mental illness, as well as all of human behavior, as a learned response to stimuli. In this view, rewards and punishments in a person’s environment shape that person’s behavior. For example, a person involved in a serious car accident may develop a phobia of cars or generalize the fear to all forms of transportation

Behaviorism: an approach to the study of psychology that concentrates exclusively on observing, measuring, and modifying behavior.

Biological perspective: Psychiatry has increasingly emphasized a biological basis for the causes of mental illness. Studies suggest a genetic influence in some mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, although the evidence is not conclusive.

Cognitive Psychology: the scientific study of cognition. Cognition refers to the process of knowing, and cognitive psychology is the study of all mental activities related to acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. The domain of cognitive psychology spans the entire spectrum of conscious and unconscious mental activities: sensation and perception, learning and memory, thinking and reasoning, attention and consciousness, imagining and dreaming, decision making, and problem solving. Other topics that fascinate cognitive psychologists include creativity, intelligence, and how people learn, understand, and use language.

Cognitive perspective: The cognitive perspective holds that mental illness results from problems in cognition—-that is, problems in how a person reasons, perceives events, and solves problems. American psychiatrist Aaron Beck proposed that some mental illnesses—such as depression, anxiety disorders, and personality disorders—result from a way of thinking learned in childhood that is not consistent with reality. For example, people with depression tend to see themselves in a negative light, exaggerate the importance of minor flaws or failures, and misinterpret the behavior of others in negative ways. It remains unclear, however, whether these kinds of cognitive problems actually cause mental illness or merely represent symptoms of the illnesses themselves.

Correlational method correlation is a statistical measurement of the relationship between two variables. Possible correlations range from +1 to –1. A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the variables. A correlation of –1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, meaning that as one variable goes up, the other goes down. A correlation of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, meaning that both variables move in the same direction together.

Critical thinking: type of critical analysis: disciplined intellectual criticism that combines research, knowledge of historical context, and balanced judgment

Descriptive research:

Double Blind Study
In a blind trial, patients do not know whether they receive the new drug or a placebo. In a double-blind trial, neither patients nor physicians know who is receiving the new treatment. This secrecy is important because patients who know they are taking a powerful new drug may expect to feel better and report improvement to doctors. Researchers who know that a patient is receiving the test treatment may also see improvements that really do not exist.

Evolutionary perspective:

Experimental method:
The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment, and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
- Control Group
- Experimental Group

Experimental bias

Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and growth. An alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology became known as “the third force.”

Humanistic perspective:
Both the humanistic and existential perspectives view abnormal behavior as resulting from a person’s failure to find meaning in life and fulfill his or her potential. The humanistic school of psychology, as represented in the work of American psychologist Carl Rogers, views mental health and personal growth as the natural conditions of human life. In Rogers’s view, every person possesses a drive toward self-actualization, the fulfillment of one’s greatest potential. Mental illness develops when circumstances in a person’s environment block this drive. The existential perspective sees emotional disturbances as the result of a person’s failure to act authentically—that is, to behave in accordance with one’s own goals and values, rather than the goals and values of others.

Hypothesis
a preliminary assumption or tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts, taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing; a theory.

Independent variable the factor that an experimenter varies (the proposed cause) is known as the independent variable and the behavior being measured (the proposed effect) is called the dependent variable. In a test of the hypothesis that frustration triggers aggression, frustration would be the independent variable, and aggression the dependent variable.

Levels of analysis
- Micro
- Molecular
- Molar

Meta-analysis a method designed to increase the reliability of research by combining and analyzing the results of all known trials of the same product or experiments on the same subject

Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is also common among developmental psychologists who study social play, parent-child attachments, and other aspects of child development. These researchers observe children at home, in school, on the playground, and in other settings.

Neuroscience
scientific study of nervous system: a scientific discipline that studies nerve cells or the nervous system, e.g. neuroanatomy or neurophysiology, or all such disciplines collectively 2. molecular and cellular neurology: the scientific study of the molecular and cellular levels of the nervous system, of systems within the brain such as vision and hearing, and of behavior produced by the brain

Predisposition factors
- Dispositional factors
- Situational factors

Placebo an inert substance, such as sugar, that is used in place of an active drug. In testing new drugs, placebos are used to avoid bias. That is, in a blind test, patients do not know if they have been given the active drug or the placebo; in a double-blind test, physicians observing the results also do not know. Placebos may be administered to some patients who have incurable illnesses in order to induce the so-called placebo effect: an improvement, at least temporarily, of the patient’s condition.

Placebo effect
Some researchers suggest that all therapies share certain qualities, and that these qualities account for the similar effectiveness of therapies despite quite different techniques. For instance, all therapies offer people hope for recovery. People who begin therapy often expect that therapy will help them, and this expectation alone may lead to some improvement (a phenomenon known as the placebo effect).

Population

Psychoanalysis a psychological theory and therapeutic method developed by Sigmund Freud, based on the ideas that mental life functions on both conscious and unconscious levels and that childhood events have a powerful psychological influence throughout life.
2. treatment by psychoanalysis: treatment by psychoanalysis, interpreting material presented by a patient in order to bring the processes of the unconscious into conscious awareness

Psychoanalytic perspective psychodynamic perspective views mental illness as caused by unconscious and unresolved conflicts in the mind. As stated by Freud, these conflicts arise in early childhood and may cause mental illness by impeding the balanced development of the three systems that constitute the human psyche: the id, which comprises innate sexual and aggressive drives; the ego, the conscious portion of the mind that mediates between the unconscious and reality; and the superego, which controls the primitive impulses of the id and represents moral ideals. In this view, generalized anxiety disorder stems from a signal of unconscious danger whose source can only be identified through a thorough analysis of the person’s personality and life experiences. Modern psychodynamic theorists tend to emphasize sexuality less than Freud did and focus more on problems in the individual’s relationships with others.

Psychology the scientific study of behavior and the mind. This definition contains three elements. The first is that psychology is a scientific enterprise that obtains knowledge through systematic and objective methods of observation and experimentation. Second is that psychologists study behavior, which refers to any action or reaction that can be measured or observed—such as the blink of an eye, an increase in heart rate, or the unruly violence that often erupts in a mob. Third is that psychologists study the mind, which refers to both conscious and unconscious mental states. These states cannot actually be seen, only inferred from observable behavior.

Random selection Random selection is how you draw the sample of people for your study from a population

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. For example, if a test is designed to measure a trait (such as introversion), then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same. Unfortunately, it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, but there several different ways to estimate reliability.

Replication the process of repeating, duplicating, or reproducing something

Representative sample

Sample

Selection bias

Socio-cultural perspective

Survey method

Structuralism

Functionalism

Gestalt

Psychodynamic

Theory

Validity

I – Sigmund Freud’s Major Hypotheses about Personality

1. Man’s Psychic system:
   

   Is a complex energy system and obeys the scientific law that energy cannot be lost or destroyed, but it can be transferred from one part of a system to another part, and it can be transformed.

2. “The Topography of the mind”
   

   There are three levels or types of mental (psychic) activity:

   1. Conscious:
   2. Preconscious:
   3. Unconscious:

3. “The Intrapsychic System”
   

   The personality structure consists of three subsystems:

   1. Id
   2. Ego
   3. Superego

4. The Psychosexual Stages of Development
   

   There are five major stages of biological-psychological development through which every person must progress if he is to become psychologically mature. Freud called these levels to become psychologically mature. Freud called these levels of development.

   Psychosexual Stages which include:

   1. Oral Stage (Birth – 18 months)
   2. Anal Stage (18 months – 3 years)
   3. Phallic Stage (3 years – 5 years)
   4. Latent State (6 years – Puberty)
   5. Genital Stage (Puberty – )

1. Personality Development
   

Personality develops in response to four major sources of tension. A person is forced to learn methods of reducing tension and this learning constitutes personality development (new modes of thought, feeling, and behavior).

1. Physiological growth processes
2. Frustration
3. Conflict
4. Threat

1. That ego develops methods for reducing tension and self protection:
   

   1. Identification and displacement are used to resolve conflicts and frustrations.
   2. Defense mechanisms are methods that deny or distort reality and that may impede the positive (or mature) development or personality or psychological functioning.

1. The early years of infancy and childhood are decisive in laying down the basic character structure and personality of each individual

II – Criticism of Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

1. Does not consider the influences of culture and society on the acquisitions of modes of behavior and personality structure.
2. Too little emphasis on the significance of the process of learning.
3. Too much emphasis on the influence of instinct, heredity, biology, and physical maturation on the development of personality.
4. His scientific or empirical procedure for validating his hypotheses had grave shortcomings in it.
5. Psychoanalytic theory is extremely difficult to test through controlled scientific research (it does not lend itself to testing by the experimental method)
6. The theory is “culture bound” and largely a reflection of 19^th century scientific thinking.

I – Structural Elements

1. Topographic Model of the Mind:
   

   There are three levels or types of mental (psychic) activity:

   1. Conscious:
      

   2. Preconscious:
      

   3. Unconscious:

      

      Image via Wikipedia

2. The Intrapsychic (Personality) System
   

   The personality structure consists of three subsystems:

   1. Id
      

   2. Ego
      

   3. Superego
      

II – Motivational Elements

1. Theories of Instincts:
   

   There are three levels or types of mental (psychic) activity:

   1. Eros Instincts and Thanatos Instincts.
      

   2. Deprivation Theory of Motivation.
      

III – Developmental Elements

1. The Psychosexual Stages of Development:
   

   1. Oral stage
      

   2. Anal stage
      

   3. Phallic stage
      

   4. Latency stage
      

   5. Genital Stage
      

IV – Psychology of Adjustment and Psychopathology

1. Theory of Anxiety:
   

   1. Moral Anxiety
      

   2. Reality Anxiety
      

   3. Neurotic Anxiety
      

2. Fixation and Regression
   

   1. Deprivation
      

   2. Over satisfaction
      

   3. Trauma
      

V – The Ego Defense Mechanisms (12 of 25)

1. Repression
   

2. Introjection
   

3. Projection
   

4. Denial
   

5. Compensation
   

   1. Direct Compensation
      
   2. Overcompensation
      

6. Identification
   

7. Rationalization
   

8. Displacement
   

   1. Substitution
      
   2. Sublimination
      

9. Intellectualization
   

10. Reaction Formation
    

11. Fixation
    

12. Regression
    

Anal character: Overly concerned with cleanliness and meticulous orderly and concerned with minute detail

Anal stage: Associated with expelling things, toilet training, and pleasure from controlling the muscles for bodily elimination. The child typically learns distinctions between inside and outside, self and other, and is able to realize a sense of power and control through these distinctions (and also ways to deal with anger and aggression).

Anxiety: Psychiatry A state of apprehension, uncertainty, and fear resulting from the anticipation of a realistic or fantasized threatening event or situation, often impairing physical and psychological functioning.

Castration complex: 1. In psychoanalytic theory, a child’s fear of injury to the genitals by the parent of the same sex as punishment for unconscious guilt over oedipal feelings. 2. An unconscious fear of injury from those in authority.

Cathexis: to be most aware of and attracted to certain objects in the environment; to invest psychic energy in those objects which correspond to the satisfaction of some need within an organism; the id cathects to any object that seems to gratify any need; the Ego invest energy only in real need satisfying objects; and the Superego invest energy in building standards or right-wrong, good-bad, and moral-immoral

Catharsis: A catharsis is an emotional release. According to psychodynamic theory, this emotional release is linked to a need to release unconscious conflicts. For example, experiencing stress over a work-related situation may cause feelings of frustration and tension. Rather than vent these feelings inappropriately, the individual may instead release these feelings in another way, such as through physical activity or another stress relieving activity.

Compensation: An unconscious psychological mechanism by which one tries to make up for imagined or real deficiencies in personality or physical ability.

Conscious: In psychoanalysis, the component of waking awareness perceptible by a person at any given instant.

Conversion hysteria: A disorder involving the loss or alteration of physical functioning, such as paralysis, voice loss, tunnel vision, or seizures, that is the result of a psychological involvement or need rather than a physical illness or disease. Also called conversion hysteria, conversion reaction.

Defense mechanisms The unconscious psychological process that people develop to relieved anxiety.

Ego: (Tharney) the second structure of the personality to develop; represents rational thought, memory, etc,: attempts to conform to the Id’s mental images into objective reality; operates on the basis of the Reality Principle by means of secondary process

Eros Life Instincts: (Eros) such needs as hunger, thirst, sex, all of which strive to preserve the individual and continue the species

Fixation: in human psychology refers to the state where an individual becomes obsessed with an attachment to another human, animal or inanimate object.

Free association: A psychoanalytic technique in which a patient verbalizes the passing contents of his or her mind without reservation. The verbalized conflicts that emerge constitute resistances that are the basis of the psychoanalyst’s interpretations.

Freudian slip: A verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion.

Genital character The un-neurotic character who does not suffer from sexual stasis and is therefore capable of natural self-regulation.

Genital stage he genital stage is the fifth and final stage of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development that begins during puberty. During this stage, the individual develops a strong interest in the opposite sex. If the other psychosexual stages have been successfully completed, the individual will develop into a well-balanced, warm, and caring adult.

Id: (Tharney) the oldest structure of the personality; innate and physiologically based; provides the psychic energy for all three parts of the system; knows only the inner world of subjective experiences; operates on the basis of the Pleasure Principle be means of reflex action and/or primary process

Instinct:
an inborn physiologically base need, the which to fulfill it, and the physic energy to do so; together all the instincts equal the personality’s total energy.

Life Instincts: (Eros) such needs as hunger, thirst, sex, all of which strive to preserve the individual and continue the species.

Death Instincts: (Thanatos) embody the organism’s destructive tendencies and potential for self destructive behavior; the aggressive drive is one’s destructive tendencies directed toward others.

Insight: Understanding, especially an understanding of the motives and reasons behind one’s actions.

Intrapsychic conflict A conflict Existing or taking place within the mind or psyche: intrapsychic conflict.

Introjection: The process of incorporating the characteristics of a person or object unconsciously into one’s psyche, often as a defense mechanism

Latent content The hidden meaning of a dream, fantasy, or thought that can be revealed through interpretation of its images or through free association in psychoanalysis.

Libido: A basic energy source in all humans that is directed at maximizing pleasure and surviving.

Manifest content The content of a dream, fantasy, or thought as it is remembered and reported in psychoanalysis.

Oedipus/Electra Complex: The conflict between mingled love and hate for the same-sex parent experienced by boys and girls between the ages of 3 and 6.

Oral character an oral character structure is characterized by traits like greed, dependency, impatience, restlessness and curiosity.

(psychology) A Freudian term applied to persons who have undergone an unusual degree of oral stimulation during the developmental period and are characterized by an attitude of carefree indifference and by dependence on a mother figure.

Oral stage: Associated with incorporation (taking things in), oral pleasure. The child typically knows no boundary between self and other (e.g., mother’s breast), inside and outside, and is defined by a close, dependent link to the mother and nourishment.

Parapraxis A minor error, such as a slip of the tongue, thought to reveal a repressed motive.

Personality Development: the acquisition of new modes of thinking, feeling, and behaving, as well as new modes of reducing tension.

Phallic character The phallic character traits seen in bipolar fashion include: gregariousness-isolation; courage-timidity; happiness-sadness; brashness-bashfulness; vanity-self contempt; pride-humility; stylishness-plain simplicity; flirtatiousness-heterosexual avoidance; chastity-promiscuity

Phallic stage (psychoanalysis) the third stage in a child’s development when awareness of and manipulation of the genitals is supposed to be a primary source of pleasure

Pleasure principle: The demand of the unconscious id for gratification of desires.

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the pleasure principle is the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all needs, wants, and urges. In other words, the pleasure principle strives to fulfill our most basic and primitive urges, including hunger, thirst, anger, and sex. When these needs are not met, the result is a state of anxiety or tension.

Preconscious The memories or feelings that are not part of one’s immediate awareness but that can be recalled through conscious effort

Primary process: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the primary process works to resolve tension created by the pleasure principle. Rather than act on dangerous or unacceptable urges, the id forms a mental image of a desired object to substitute for an urge in order to diffuse tension and anxiety.

Psychoanalysis: is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. As a technique of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis seeks to discover connections among the unconscious components of patients’ mental processes. The analyst’s goal is to help liberate the patient from unexamined or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance, that is, past patterns of relating that are no longer serviceable or that inhibit freedom.

Secondary process: in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the secondary process discharges the tension between the ego and the id that is caused by unmet urges or needs. The secondary process functions through the ego’s action of looking for an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id’s primary process.

Super Ego: (Tharney) the third structure of the personality to develop; acquired by means of the process of learning; represents the internalization of society’s values, morals and standards; it’s Ego ideal rewards appropriate behaviors and it’s conscience punishes inappropriate or unacceptable behavior; operates on the basis of the Perfection (morality) Principle.

Theoretical Basis:
the theory is based on the words and actions of patients seen in analytic treatment; Freud published detailed case studies on some of his many patients to illustrate some of his important concepts.

Unconscious the part mind composed mainly of repressed motives and thoughts

Union County College

Department of Psychology

Professor Thaddeus R. Tharney

Introduction

It is difficult, if not impossible, to understand any other developmental theories (or their corresponding models of psychological functioning), without first assimilating and understanding Sigmund Freud’s theory, and his model of “psychodynamics“. All subsequent “psychodynamic theories” were strongly influenced by Freud’s work, and their views can be seen as modifications, expansions, or revisions of Freud’s earlier work. The “Learning Theory” and “Phenomenological” models are based on attempts to address the shortcomings and criticism of “Psychoanalytic Theory”.

In the fields of personality psychology, developmental psychology, and abnormal psychology, no other individual has stimulated more interest, critical thought, scholarly activity, and more clinical research, that Sigmund Freud. Freud used structural, developmental, and motivational constructs to describe the complexity of human personality functioning. Many of the developmental theorists, that will be discussed later, focus their criticism, elaborations, modifications or revisions of Freud’s work on one or more of these constructs. It is important for the beginning student in developmental psychology to distinguish between these types of constructs and thus appreciate how Freud relied on a complex integration of all three in order to explain personality development and psychological functioning. The psychoanalytic approach to personality assumes that ones personality is the end product of its own history; that past acquisitions continue to effect further psychological development; that study of the development of each aspect of the personality can provide information about man that cannot be obtained in any other way; and that personality develops in distinct “stages”.

Freud’s theory also states that in both normal and abnormal development, the major characteristics of personality are permanently established in early childhood, through each child’s pleasures and frustrations in various developmental stages. Freud used the term “fixations” to refer to childish traits that become permanent features of one’s later personality. These fixations result form the stunting of growth, as a result of either excessive frustrations or excessive indulgence of a child’s needs, during a particular phase of development. Reverting (either temporary or long term) to earlier, more childish, immature, or more primitive forms of thought, expressions or behavior, is referred to as “regression“.

According to Freud, certain regions of the body, at particular times, are of prominent psychological significance, and so are the specific pleasures that result from the satisfaction of needs associated with these regions which he referred to as “erogenous zones” of the body. Healthy gratification of these needs leads to normal development, while either indulgence of too much frustration leads to fixation. The result of fixation is a particular type of character which can be identified by a set of traits or a “personality syndrome“. Every person can be described by one or more of these character types, and depending on which traits assume a dominant role, whether the person will be normal or abnormal. Freud also believed that sexual instincts strongly influenced the development of personality and emotionality, and therefore, he spoke of human development in terms of “Psychosexual Stages“. It should be noted, however, that Freud equated “sexuality” with any “sensual” pleasure (i.e., thus using the term “sexuality” in a much more general way that it is commonly used). In addition to survival, sexuality is the other major motive in life.

Freud’s developmental theory emphasizes the animalistic nature of the child. He contended that the child is more animal than human. Sensual interest, concerns and experiences and pleasures almost completely occupy the physical and psychological functioning of the infant and child. The “more human processes” such as higher mental functioning, more complex emotional states, learned interest, acquired attitudes, and the skills of social and interpersonal functioning, are not yet present. Freud held that all of child’s needs (including the need for loving care) are sensual (i.e., sexual), and therefore, the child is viewed as a highly sexual (sensual) animal, much like beast of the wild. Freud related the needs and functions of the child to the “erogenous zones” of the body: the oral region, the anal region, and the genital region. Consider, from a Freudian perspective, the nature of the physical stimulation and satisfaction that infants and children receive: feeding, changing, bathing, touching, rocking, patting, hugging, kissing, and physical movement and manipulation of the body.

While Freud also recognized the more typical types of learning (such as conditioning, associative learning, and even insight learning), he did not choose to address or add anything to these concepts, but adhere to his original developmental concepts (some of which may be considered learning principles) as a way of emphasizing that we must not forget that man is fundamentally animal, and that man’s “animal tendencies” should not be forgotten or rejected as “foreign” to human beings.

Developmental Constructs

Freud’s growth model of development states that in the normal developmental process there is continuing growth and development in personality and character, so that the adult is distinctly different from the child. In this view, traits and characteristics acquired in infancy and early childhood become permanent features of one’s personality, and once these personality components are established, they are highly resistant to change. While much of the personality and character structure are formed by the age of five or six years, it must also be noted that the full development of the personality continues through young adulthood. Specific traits and characteristics, whether normal or abnormal, are formed during each of Freud’s proposed five “Psychosexual Stages” and therefore the mature personality requires adequate development during all the stages (including the last stage). Therefore, the point is that although much of one’s personality is formed early in life, mature heterosexuality most certainly doesn’t occur in a six year old child. Freud believed that human personality develops is distinct stages early in life, and is often criticized for his strict “determinism” (his belief that personality becomes fixed in childhood years and cannot be changed b learning or maturation); and his failure to consider significant changes in the adult personality (other that by means of therapeutic intervention).

Freud’s developmental stages include the Oral Stage, the Anal Stage, the Phallic Stage, the Latency Stage, and the Genital Stage. In his view, first impressions and earliest experiences make the strongest impressions because they cannot be compared to previous experiences. These “prototypic” experiences are the most outstanding, complete, and perfect examples of something (i.e., people, situations, things, or events). Therefore, the purest form of anxiety (an utter sense of apprehension, isolation, and helplessness), the purest form of fear (utter dread and sense of terror), would occur early in life because the young child has not developed any defenses against such overwhelming emotions, and has nothing to compare such experiences to. Thus, early in childhood, emotions are not under control; motive and needs reach high intensities; perceptions are easily distorted; cognitive elaboration and rational evaluation have not yet developed; utilization of “defense mechanism” to facilitate adjustment is not yet possible; and the ability to control environmental circumstances and inner psychic reactions are still lacking. All of these factors make the early years of life difficult and extremely significant in emotional growth, personality development, and character formation.

The Psychosexual Stages

It would be helpful at this point to briefly turn our attention to describe the five psychosexual stages, the related personality characteristics that are associated with each, and the particular erogenous zones of the body specifically associated with the first three biologically base “pregenital stages“.

1. The Oral Stage

   The oral stage encompasses the first 12 to 18 months of postnatal development and during this stage the mouth is the central focus of many of the infant’s physical and social activities, and the major source of pleasure, satisfaction, conflict, and frustration. This is the first of the biologically based stages and is further divided into two phases: the dependant (or incorporative)
   phase and the aggressive
   (or assertive)
   phase. In the order of their appearance, the principle modes of oral functioning are: sucking, spitting out, biting, chewing, and shutting the mouth so that nothing can be put in it. Thus the development sequence related to oral functions progresses from passive incorporation, through active participation, to rejection. Fixation can occur at any point in the sequence. A number of “oral character” traits have been distinguished in a bipolar fashion, and it should be noted that either extreme, hinders normal development, and an “intermediate” position is considered to be the most desirable (normal).

   The “Oral Character” Traits
   

   Theses traits include: passivity-manipulativeness (passive aggressive); admiration-jealousy (envy); optimism-pessimism; self confidence-self doubt (self belittlement); and gullibility-suspiciousness. Some individuals may be identified as a specific oral type character by singling out their most outstanding or pivotal traits (i.e. “oral dependent” or “passive aggressive” type oral character).

2. The Anal Stage

   The anal stage extends from 18 months to about 3 to 3 ½ years, covering roughly the period of early socialization and toilet training. It is during this stage that the child becomes aware of, and derives pleasure sensations from, the expulsion and retention of bodily waste. This second of the biologically based stages is also divided in to two phases: the expulsive
   (or impulsive)
   phase and the retentive (or compulsive) phase, each constituting approximately half of this stage.

The anal stage is considered to be important in the continuing development of the ego because the child is beginning to develop feelings of independence and autonomy, and gradually developing conscious voluntary control over bodily functions in compliance with adult (societal) expectations. In addition, the child is acquiring attitudes toward its own body (and natural bodily functions); the basic life orientations of holding on and letting go; and the necessity of socially acceptable and socially cooperative behavior. Therefore, toilet training needs to be conducted cautiously in order to avoid indulgence or frustration during the process.

The “anal character” traits may be said to reflect characteristics ranging from
“expulsive” sloppiness and disorganization (impulsivity), to “retentive” cleanliness and orderliness (compulsivity).

The “Anal Character” Traits

The “anal character” traits viewed in bipolar form includes: generosity-stinginess; messiness-neatness; expansiveness-constrictedness; acquiescence-stubbornness; obedience-defiance; punctuality-tardiness; rigidity-flexibility; meticulousness-dirtiness; organization-confusion; giving-withholding; and precision-vagueness. Individuals demonstrating clusters or groupings of these and other related traits, may be classified as either an “expulsive” (i.e., impulsive) or a “retentive” (i.e. compulsive) anal character type.

1. The Phallic Stage

The phallic stage extends from about 3 years to 5½ years or 6 years of age, and is a period of development during which the genital region of the body becomes the primary source of pleasure, tension, “conflict“ and “anxiety“.

The preschool child demonstrates curiosity and inquisitiveness about sexuality and sexual differences. The parental reaction to the child’s preoccupation with genital region of the body during this stage should be neither too restrictive nor too liberal so as to avoid both frustration and indulgence. Since it is during this stage of development, that the child comes into contact with a growing number of people (i.e., the extended family and persons outside the family), the development aspects of the phallic stage involve the child’s emerging self-concept, self-referent feelings, self-assertion, and interpersonal relationships with others. It is also during this stage that the child begins to recognize, identify, and differentiate between, male and female roles, and subsequently begin to assume his or her appropriate role (i.e. sex appropriate behaviors, attitudes and characteristics). It is also during the latter part of this stage that the male children are said to experience the “Oedipus Complex” and the female children to experience the “Electra Complex” as a crucial part of normal development.

The Oedipus Complex

The Freudian concept of the Oedipus complex refers to the development of an emotional triangle within the family (mother, father, child) in which the male child develops an emotional attachment and a sexual attraction for his mother and feelings of competitiveness and rivalry for his father. The rivalry with the father figure leads to internal conflict within the child because the father becomes respected, revered and feared (due to the experiences of what Freud identified as “castration anxiety” (i.e. fear of the fathers aggressive potential). In the course of normal development, the male child engages in “Sex role identification” and by abandoning his attraction toward the mother and emulating his father, he assumes the masculine sex role characteristics that are considered sex appropriate for his gender. Abnormal development may result from inadequate, inappropriate or ineffective learning; rejection of the male role model; an inability or unwillingness to switch from the maternal figure to the paternal figure; etc.. The resulting consequences can range from sexual identity confusion, alternative sexual preferences, an inability to establish meaningful heterosexual relationships with woman of the same age, or overvaluing sexual prowess, etc.

The Electra Complex

Freud’s Electra Complex refers to the development of a similar emotional triangle within the family in which the girl develops an emotional triangle within the family in which the girl develops an emotional attachment and sexual attraction to the father figure and a corresponding rivalry with the mother over the father’s time, interest, attention and affection. Her attraction to the father and her love for her mother leads to the development of conflict. Her feelings of rivalry with the mother can be further complicated if she discovers that she has no penis (which can lead to what Freud identified as “penis envy” [i.e., causing an undervaluing of the female role and overvaluing the male role]).

Differences in the motivation for sex role identification between boys and girls are cited as the reasons for differences in the Superego development of males and females. In the case of male children it is frequently referred to as “defensive identification” and in female children as “anaclytic identification.”

The phallic character traits

The phallic character traits seen in bipolar fashion include: gregariousness-isolation; courage-timidity; happiness-sadness; brashness-bashfulness; vanity-self contempt; pride-humility; stylishness-plain simplicity; flirtatiousness-heterosexual avoidance; chastity-promiscuity.

1. The Latency Stage

   The latency stage extends from 6 years of age to the onset of puberty (by about 12 years of age). Freud originally did not consider the latency period “genuine” psychosexual stage, but a period of dormancy during development which involved an elaboration of previously acquired traits and characteristics.

   Upon closer examination, however, it was determined that there was a great deal occurring during this period, but in a much more subtle and inconspicuous manner. This is believed to be because the changes are socially and interpersonally based (rather then biologically).

   Every child during this period, which spans the years covering most of elementary school, enters the peer group subculture of childhood, as they begin their educational experience. Over the course of the educational process, each child is separated from the home environment; relationship with their parents reduce in intensity; and greater periods of time are spent in contact with peers and other adult authority figures (teachers).

   During the early phase of this stage children demonstrate an almost exclusive preference for associations with the same age and sex peers, and an aversion to heterosexual relationships. Heterosexual interest, curiosity and attraction are avoided. The process of identification, shifts from parents to teachers (and other significant authority figures), and then to peers. Toward the end of this stage, physiological changes result in the early development of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics in preparation for the onset of puberty. These hormonal and anatomical changes occasion the resurgence of Oedipus or Electra complexes which are finally resolved at the conclusion of this stage when the child begins to become attracted to “substitute love objects” (members of the opposite sex).

2. The Genital Stage

   The Genital Stage begins with the onset of puberty and last throughout adulthood. The outstanding characteristics of this stage are the elaboration, integration, consolidation and unification of the traits, qualities, and characteristics of the previous stages, and the full development of the sexual instinct. For Freud, this is the stage of mature heterosexuality (i.e., sexual maturity), and the genital region becomes the primary locus of sexual tension and sexual gratification. According to Freud, the use of the term “genital” or “genitality” in reference to this stage means not only sexual maturity, but personal, emotional and psychological maturity as well. This also means achieving competence is one’s social relationships, in vocational activity and in recreational pursuits.

   According to Freud the two most outstanding characteristics of psychological maturity are the capacity to love and the ability to work. In Freud’s view the ideal, mature, heterosexual adult is a “well socialized” social conformist. In this stage possible conflicts and fixations may result from an individual’s problematic relationships or occupations. Such difficulties may result from in maladjusted or abnormal traits including: indiscriminate love or hate; overly “sentimental” love (Freud stated that one is most unstable when they are in love); and the inability to work, or compulsive work.

   The preceding aspects of Sigmund Freud’s theory have been criticized because of his strict adherence to “psychic determinism” (i.e. his strong belief that one’s personality becomes fixed in childhood and subsequently cannot change by either maturation or learning); Freud’s failure to consider changes in adult personality (a definite developmental shortcoming in this theory); and his ideas regarding infantile and childhood sexuality (sexual attractions, tension and desires), rather than family relationships and interpersonal situations being more influenced by such factors as learning, gender differences, competition, cooperation and identification (i.e. imitation and observational learning).

Development of Psychological Processes

Development of “The Ego Defense Mechanism”

Freud’s developmental concepts include other developmental processes beyond the psychosexual stages. For example, the Ego Defense Mechanisms are developmental in nature. The developing child acquires coping strategies to protect himself against anxiety, conflict, guilt, threat, and stress. Various forms of frustration and conflict play a significant role in the acquisition and formation of these mechanisms of adjustment. If there were no conflicts, and needs were never frustrated, these mechanism would never develop.

Identification

One such significant developmental concept is the process of Identification. It is a process by which the child assumes the traits, attitudes, characteristics and specific behaviors of significant others, and then incorporate these into their own personality structure. Identification and imitation can be differentiated, on the basis of the degree of conscious awareness involved, and the permanence of the learning.

Displacement

Another significant developmental concept is displacement. It refers to either the substitution of one object for another, or the sublimation of primitive urges and impulses into socially and personally acceptable outlets of expression.

Substitution

According to Freud substitution
occurs whenever an instinctual need is active, psychic energy is generated that is normally directed toward a particular object
(”Object Cathexis“) and the energy is discharged; if the object is not available a substitute object is sought.

It should be noted that when the object is not available, the energy remains as a psycho physiological tension (an uncomfortable motivated state), and a substitute object will relieve the tension, but to a lesser degree.

It should also be noted that the process of learning is involved in searching for better and better displacements. Since displacement does not usually relieve as much tension (as the original object), there is motivational power (in the form of frustrated psychic energy) to support efforts to learn better displacements.

Sublimation

In sublimation, the displacement process involves another form of learning in which new outlets for, socially and personally unacceptable, urges and impulses that are not permitted in their usual outlets.

In the process one channels primitive impulses (usually sexual or aggressive in nature) into personally acceptable and socially praiseworthy modes of expression.

It should be noted here that the healthy, mature individual is one who uses sublimation well and thereby satisfies both instinctual demands and societal restrictions at the same time. It was Freud’s contention that the fully healthy person is the fully sublimated person.

Fixation

Another developmental concept is fixation, which refers to the formation of enduring traits as a result of a slowing, stunting, or arrestation of development in a particular stage. According to Freud, as the body and the psyche mature, certain needs become a prominent, and the mishandling of needs can cause them to become a permanent feature of one’s personality, from that point on. Since the needs exist in their original “infantile” or “childish” form, they can create a disturbing or maladaptive influence on the later growth and functioning of the personality. If that particular need is properly and adequately dealt with, at the appropriate stage of development, it will then become a normal trait or characteristic; if it is frustrated or over-indulged it will then become a abnormal trait which will evident itself in the form of either a deficiency or an excessive characteristic of the individual, later in their development. It is important to note that many “extreme” personality traits are an exaggerated form of “normal” traits which, because of faulty “management” or “problematic” experiences, become an impediment to appropriate maturation and psychological growth. The result of fixation may be regression.

Regression

The processes of regression may be viewed as reverting to earlier, less mature (i.e. more infantile or childish) patterns of functioning, in times when the individual is confronted with prolonged or inordinate psychological stress. If the individual is “overwhelmed” by the stress (and the stressful condition does not abate), then, according to Freud, the individual will regress to that stage of development where the greatest degree of fixation (or most significant fixation) occurred.

Development of the Libido

Freud termed the psychic (instinctual) energy needs associated with various regions of the body (erogenous zones), the Libido. The libido represents a combination of the major life (”Eros“) instincts which become invested in specific objects in the environment (object Cathexis). A particular type of “libidinal gratification” may come to assume a prominent role in an individual’s life. If the development of the child is normal and healthy, then the developing libido progresses in an orderly, predictable sequence, and investments and attachments undergo predictable changes. Initially, libidinal energy is centered on autocratic pleasure seeking, including stimulation of the mouth, followed by anal pleasures, and subsequently followed by autoerotic stimulation of the genital region.

Gradually the libido then becomes invested in preferred objects and other people. With further development, the libido becomes invested in forming attachments to playmates, then friends of the same sex, that a “best friend” or pal. With the maturation of the developing personality, the libido later becomes invested in heterosexual attraction, and the expression of the desire for love and intimacy with a person of the opposite sex. The fully mature individual possesses all of the previously mentioned libidinal investments and attachments, but in a well balanced manner. If fixation occurs, however, it may cause the libidinal energy to become inordinately focused (fixated) on one of the developmental levels. Upon arrival at heterosexual maturity, one might be expected to be in love with their spouse, enjoy at night out with friends, enjoy constructive pastimes, recreation, enjoy productive work, and maintain a degree of self-love which enables them to enjoy their own thoughts, emotions, activities and their own company.