Why is timing of the CS and UCS important in classical conditioning?

Delayed conditioning is the most effective form of classical conditioning. Less effective are simultaneous conditioning and trace conditioning

After conditioning, extinction of the CR occurs when the UCS is discontinued. Allowing time to pass and returning the subject to the apparatus is typically accompanied by spontaneous recovery.

Why is it important for the CS to “predict” the UCS?

The crucial factor in classical conditioning is the consistency with which the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS.

How do generalization and discrimination work?

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to the original CS also produces CR. Stimulus discrimination, its complement, occurs when dissimilar stimuli produce lesser CR or none at all.

How does biological predisposition affect classical conditioning?

Biological predispositions are often apparent in classical conditioning. Because of pre-wiring, some CS-UCS associations can be established much more easily that others and some not at all.

Taste aversion experiments provide an example of how biological predispositions affect conditioning. The learning of taste aversion is easy for animals that naturally associate taste with food but difficult to impossible for animals that use other cues, such as visual ones for food.

Experiments:

In the modern view, conditioning can be best explained by the development of expectancies-that is, what animals and humans learn is the expectation that a particular conditioned stimulus (CS) will be followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Classical conditioning by past events may account for many of the fears and preferences displayed by human adults-and also for physical symptoms such as unexplained headaches or nausea and the intense desire to return to drug use that is some times displayed by former drug addicts.

In Watson and Rayner’s “Little Albert” experiment, the loud sound was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the rat was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and a fear response was the (UCR), and the (CR).

In the experiment on conditioned illness in rats, the insulin was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the light and syringe were the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the coma was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

In the experiment on conditioning the immune system in rats, the drug was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the novel taste was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and production of the antibodies was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

In the experiments on conditioning sexual behavior in rats, normal female odors were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the lemon scent was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and sexual arousal was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

Focus Questions

What is operant conditioning and how did Skinner study it?

Operant behavior “operates” on the environment in accord with contingencies. Operant conditioning
is base on contingencies that are arranged in the lab or occur in real life.

Contingency: the relationship between behavior and its consequences.

Operant conditioning: the imposition of contingences, either deliberate or natural.

The controlled environment of the Skinner box revolutionized the study of learning and conditioning.

Parallels between classical and operant conditioning occur in areas extinction and spontaneous recovery, as well as stimulus generalization and discrimination.

Shaping and successive approximations is an efficient procedure for training subjects to perform specific behaviors.

Shaping and successive approximations: a procedure for quickly establishing a contingency, such as bar pressing by rats or key pecking by pigeons, by rewarding successive approximations to the target behavior.

An operant is a class of behaviors-not a specific behavior.

What basic terms and procedures are involved in operant conditioning?

The first half of Thorndike’s law of effect corresponds to positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement: the second half corresponds to positive punishment and negative punishment.

Positive reinforcement: an operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is strengthened because it results in presentation of an appetitive stimulus; also known as reward training.

Negative reinforcement: an operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is strengthened because it results in removal of an aversive stimulus; also known as escape or active avoidance training.

In operant conditioning contingencies, positive means that a stimulus is presented or “added” and negative means that a stimulus is removed or subtracted. The effect on behavior is then determined by whether the stimulus is appetitive or aversive.

Positive punishment: an operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is weakened or suppressed because it results in presentation of an appetitive stimulus; also known as reward training

The Mind as an Iceberg

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, compared the human mind to an iceberg. The tip above the water represents consciousness, and the vast region below the surface symbolizes the unconscious mind. Of Freud’s three basic personality structures-id, ego, and superego-only the id is totally unconscious.

How do psychological researchers protect the rights and safety of human participants?

The code of ethics developed by the APA and enforced by law requires that researchers who use human participants pay particular attention to such issues as informed consent and protection of participants from physical or psychological harm.

Informed Consent the ethical requirement that research participants be told in advance what will happen and participate voluntarily throughout.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) decide whether psychological research may be conducted.

How do psychological researchers protect the rights and safety of laboratory animals?

The APA and public law also require that researchers take special care in the use of animals in psychological research, avoiding needless harm and exploitation; the use of animals in scientific research remains controversial.

What is classical conditioning and how did Pavlov study it?

Ivan Pavlov is the originator of what is now called classical conditioning, a form of learning base primarily on stimuli that causes reflexes, such as salvation in response to food.

Conditioning: the establishment of a relationship between stimuli and responses, or vice versa.

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior potential as a result of experience..

Reflexes: a built-in or otherwise automatic response to a specific stimulus.

What basic procedures are involved in classical conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally produces the reflex response is the unconditional stimulus (UCS), which is repeatedly paired with an initially neutral stimuli until the latter becomes the conditional stimulus (CS). What is learned in classical conditioning is a CS-UCS association; the original reflex response is the unconditional response (UCR), and the response produced by the CS is the conditional response (CR).

Classical Conditioning: The establishment of a relationship between two stimuli, typically one that evokes a reflex response and one that is initially neutral with regard to this response.

Unconditional stimulus (UCS):
Any stimulus that automatically and reliably produces a particular response, such as a reflex.

Conditional stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response similar to that elicited by a UCS.

Unconditional response (UCR): The automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditional response (CR): the learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS).

What roles in heredity and environment play in behavior and development?

There is a continuing debate (historically called the nature-nurture controversy) over the relative importance of heredity and environment in development and behavior.

Is developmental change gradual or abrupt?

Human development is a mix of both continuities (gradual and cumulative changes) and discontinuities (dramatic, often sudden changes).

Why is it important to consider the context in which behavior occurs?

Human behavior may not be as consistent as was once believed; often a person’s actions depend on the context in which behavior occurs.

Why is it important to consider culture and ethnicity in understanding behavior?

Of the foremost importance in modern psychology is coming to grips with differences in human behavior attributed to culture, ethnicity, and other sources of diversity and thereby avoiding ethnocentrism; of particular interest is the impact of individualist versus collectivist cultures on behavior.

Culture: the composite of norms, practices, beliefs, attitudes, arts, and heritage.

Ethnocentrism: An outlook bound by one’s own culture and perhaps ignorant of or even disrespectful toward the cultures of others.

Individualist culture: a culture that is characterized by independence and typically values the good of the individual over the good of the group.

Collectivist culture: a culture that is characterized by interdependence and typically values the good of the group over the good of the individual.

Diversity: Group differences in culture, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and other characteristics.

How did scientific psychology begin?

Psychology was founded in 1879, when the first laboratory was established by WILHELM WUNDT at Leipzig University, in Leipzig Germany; some early psychologist who followed, including WILLIAM JAMES (the founder of modern psychology), were chiefly interested in studying human functioning via introspection.

SIGMUND FREUD had a profound impact on psychology as we know it today; although many of his ideas about human nature and behavior have not survived the test of time and research, psychoanalytic theory

(1^st force in Psychology) has become known as the first force in psychology.

Strict Behaviorism: (2^nd force in Psychology) a rebellion against introspection and other approaches, limited its study to overt behavior; it began with the work of THORNDIKE and PAVLOV and has become known as the second force in Psychology.

WATSON was a spokesperson for strict behaviorism; he proposed that all human and other animal behavior is a series of actions that can be explained in terms of specific stimuli and response.

BF SKINNER agreed that human beings are creatures of their environment, whose behavior depends on the contingencies they are subjected to.

Gestalt psychology: took the position that the whole is more than the sum of the parts; thus in studying any psychological phenomena -from perceptual to more general cognitive processes-Psychologist must consider the phenomena themselves and the context in which they occur as a whole.

Humanistic psychology: (3^rd force in Psychology) started as a rebellion against psychoanalysis and strict behaviorism; because it stresses the unique qualities of being human, it has become the third force of psychology.

Positive psychology: is a more recent development; it stresses that theory and research should focus on adaptive and healthy behavior, not just maladaptive behavior.

Cognitive psychology: focuses on mental and intellectual processes, such as the ways people and other animals learn about their environments, organize and store the knowledge in memory, think about it, and use it to act.

Much if cognitive psychology is based on the informational-processing model adapted from computer science, although the study of cognition has diverse roots in the history of psychology

What are the major approaches taken by psychologist in the past?

Structuralism, Functionalism, Strict Behaviorism etc

What are the major approaches in psychology today?

A growing number of Psychologist today focus on psychobiology, the study of how various facets of behavior are associated with processes in the body; psychobiology includes cognitive and behavioral neuroscience.

Psychobiology: a general term for the study of how behavior is associated with bodily processes.

Cognitive and behavioral neurosciences: in psychology, the study of relationships between brain functioning and physical or psychological behavior.

STUDY CHART

Approaches and Schools of thought in Psychology

Functionalism: an approach that stressed how modern human thought might result from progressive adaptations our ancestors experienced.

Structuralism: (1^st school of thought is psychology) an approach that emphasized breaking down consciousness and mental activity into structural components and analyzing them individually.

Psychoanalysis: Analysis of the unconscious motives and conflicts of patients in an attempt to develop insight into their present mental or behavioral problems.

Strict Behaviorism: (2^nd force of Psychology) an approach that considers only overt behavior to be appropriate subject matter for psychology.

Gestalt psychology: an approach that examines patterns of thought and behavior, emphasizing the situation or context in which they occur.

Humanistic Psychology: (3^rd force of Psychology) an approach that emphasizes human values, goals, and desire for growth, fulfillment, and peace and happiness.

Positive Psychology: an approach that calls attention to positive aspects of human behavior, such as happiness, satisfaction, and personal well-being.

Cognitive approach: a contemporary trend, based largely on the information-processing model that emphasizes mental and intellectual processes such as learning, memory, and thought.

Psychobiological approaches: the study of how various facets of behavior are associated with processes in the body especially the brain.

What differences are there between experiments with individuals and experiments with groups?

Experiments may focus on individuals or on the averaging and comparison of behavior of groups.

What factors must be considered in conducting meaningful, conclusive experiments?

Experiments begin with a prediction about conditions that will cause the participants’ behavior to differ.

Independent Variable: a potential “cause” in an experiment; the way in which participants are treated differently by an experimenter.

Dependent Variable: a potential “effect” in an experiment; a measure of the behavior of participants as a result of the independent variable.

Operational definition: the “translation” of an independent or dependant variable into what is actually done or measured. are crucial to the value of an experiment.

Systematic replication: reproducing experiments with variations designed to make conclusions about behavior more general. Is needed for results of an experiment to be generalized beyond the specifics experimental procedures employed.

Why is replication of experiments important?

Replication is needed for results of an experiment to be generalized beyond the specific experimental procedures employed.